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References

Where the numbers come from.

Each reference on the site points at a line below. Entries marked Checked have been opened and confirmed against the publisher, with the date recorded. Entries marked To confirm are drawn from our research brief and have not yet been traced back to a primary document.

Broker-compiled entries come from aggregators rather than hospitals or authorities. They are the weakest material here and are never the only support for a figure.

46 official · 4 checked · 34 reported · 9 broker-compiled · 39 still to confirm.

  • [S1]Checked · 2026

    South Korea Ministry of Health and Welfare: foreign patient statistics

    https://www.korea.net/Government/Briefing-Room/Press-Releases/view?articleId=2016788checked 2026-09-15

    Confirms 2.01m foreign patients in 2025, +71.9%, dermatology-led, Seoul 87.2%.

  • [S2]To confirm · 2025

    Bumrungrad International Hospital: quarterly results and international patient figures

  • [S3]To confirm · 2025

    TÜİK health tourism figures via ministry reporting

  • [S4]To confirm · 2025

    Dr. Yunus Öçgüder clinic published international price list, Istanbul

  • [S5]To confirm · 2025

    Esencan International Hospital / Prof. Dr. Yuksel Yurttas pricing

  • [S6]To confirm · 2024

    ASAMI-TURK society history; Prof. M. Kocaoğlu academic profile

  • [S7]To confirm · 2025

    DALRI (Dr. Donghoon Lee) official international pricing

  • [S8]To confirm · 2025

    ZEM Germany / Prof. Rainer Baumgart published pricing

  • [S9]To confirm · 2025

    Betz Institute published pricing

  • [S10]To confirm · 2025

    3D-Surgery (Dr. Peter Thaller) published pricing

  • [S11]To confirm · 2026

    Athens BJR / Dr. Dimitrios Giotikas official price list

  • [S12]To confirm · 2024

    Guichet Institute published pricing

  • [S13]Broker-compiled · 2025

    Thailand limb-lengthening market pricing and case-budget analysis

  • [S14]Broker-compiled · 2025

    China limb-lengthening market pricing

  • [S15]To confirm · 2025

    Paley Institute benchmark pricing

  • [S16]To confirm · 2025

    Height Lengthening Institute (Dr. Mahboubian) published pricing

  • [S17]Broker-compiled · 2025

    Patient-reported bilateral case, Seoul

  • [S18]To confirm · 2025

    Shanghai Jiahui International Hospital: JCI status, MGH partnership

  • [S19]To confirm · 2025

    Chinese hospital tier and elite public hospital reporting

  • [S20]Reported · 2025

    China public hospital International Department tier: registration fees, bed rates and direct billing

    https://m.163.com/dy/article/KIHKKEG40519DFFO.htmlchecked 2026-09-15

    Corrected upward. Beijing Children's Hospital International Department, opened January 2026, charges CNY 1,000 base registration and CNY 1,500 for a designated expert, against CNY 50-100 at its regular outpatient clinic and CNY 500-800 at its special-needs clinic. Fudan Obstetrics and Gynecology in Qingpu lists CNY 5,000 for an international-department consultation with a senior gynaecological oncologist, self-pay only. State Council guidance caps special-needs services at 10 percent of a public hospital's volume.

  • [S21]To confirm · 2025

    Private international clinic pricing in China

  • [S22]Official · 2024

    China National Health Commission: annual medical visit volume

    https://www.nhc.gov.cn/checked 2026-09-15

    The upstream research gave China's annual medical visits as 100-105.8 billion. The real figure is roughly 10 billion, a tenfold error, corrected in the brief before it reached here.

  • [S23]To confirm · 2025

    International patient speed-of-care reporting, China

  • [S24]To confirm · 2025

    Chinese Society of Radiation Oncology: particle centre count and pipeline

  • [S25]To confirm · 2024

    Carbon-ion centre country reporting

  • [S26]Reported · 2023

    Shanghai Proton and Heavy Ion Center: flat rate, patient volume, NPC survival

    http://www.sh.xinhuanet.com/20260509/e2ed148ca8544157b9f34e036689605c/c.htmlchecked 2026-09-15

    Updated. 9,317 cumulative patients, five-year overall survival 70.4 percent, nasopharyngeal 93.8 percent, more than 100 overseas patients. Pricing is CNY 278,000 for the flat radiotherapy fee against roughly CNY 330,000 average total once everything else is counted, which is why a single headline figure for this centre is misleading.

  • [S27]To confirm · 2024

    China CAR-T (axi-cel) pricing and commercial insurance reporting

  • [S28]To confirm · 2024

    China-Japan Friendship Hospital integrative medicine reporting

  • [S29]Official · 2024

    Boao Lecheng special zone statistics and approval timelines

    https://en.hainan.gov.cn/englishsite/iind/202506/b3a75ac6a20e4c71a0e0aac1951cb361.shtmlchecked 2026-09-15

    Product count has moved on: 560 to 607 internationally approved drugs and devices, against the 450 in the brief.

  • [S30]To confirm · 2025

    Beijing Yanda IVF two-cycle package pricing

  • [S31]To confirm · 2024

    China dental implant price-band reporting

  • [S32]To confirm · 2025

    China spinal surgery cost reporting

  • [S33]To confirm · 2023

    China joint-implant centralised procurement (VBP) reporting

  • [S34]To confirm · 2025

    China oncology treatment cost reporting

  • [S35]To confirm · 2025

    China S1/S2 medical visa requirements; Hainan proof-of-funds rules

  • [S36]To confirm · 2025

    Turkey medical tourism market analyses

  • [S37]To confirm · 2025

    Turkish flagship hospital group reporting

  • [S38]Broker-compiled · 2025

    Turkish procedure price listings

  • [S39]To confirm · 2025

    Turkey tele-clinical follow-up coverage reporting

  • [S40]To confirm · 2025

    Korean hospital and clinic market reporting

  • [S41]To confirm · 2025

    Korea limb-lengthening pricing, clinic-published

  • [S42]To confirm · 2026

    Korea K-ETA exemption and e-Arrival Card rules

  • [S43]To confirm · 2025

    Thai hospital international patient service reporting

  • [S44]To confirm · 2026

    Newsweek World's Best Hospitals 2026: Switzerland rankings

  • [S45]To confirm · 2025

    Swiss private clinic group international pricing

  • [S46]To confirm · 2025

    Heidelberg and Freiburg international second-opinion price lists

  • [S47]To confirm · 2025

    German proton therapy centre pricing

  • [S48]Broker-compiled · 2025

    EU joint-replacement price comparisons

  • [S49]To confirm · 2025

    UK private healthcare price guides

  • [S50]Official · 2006

    PRC Ministry of Health regulation 卫医发[2006]428号 restricting limb-lengthening surgery to medical indications

    https://www.nhc.gov.cn/bgt/pw10611/200702/33de84ed7b40404387adf27226d0346c.shtmlchecked 2026-09-15

    Limb lengthening is permitted only for congenital deformity, trauma, tumour or infection causing a leg-length discrepancy. Cosmetic height gain is not a lawful indication in China.

  • [S51]Official · 2026

    Chengdu stem cell fraud prosecution: CNY 38m taken from more than 1,900 elderly patients

    https://www.sichuanpeace.gov.cn/cd/20260324/2995670.htmlchecked 2026-09-15

    Preparations sold as stem cell therapy at CNY 9,980 to 79,800 were largely vitamin C, saline and glutathione costing under CNY 100. The clinic sat opposite the Sichuan Stem Cell Bank, and nurses altered follow-up test data to show improvement.

  • [S52]Official · 2015

    National Health Commission 干细胞临床研究管理办法（试行）: measures for stem cell clinical research

    https://www.nhc.gov.cn/qjjys/c100015/201508/43d7f4c288e04fb9950f352e33d6d46d.shtmlchecked 2026-09-15

    Institutions may not charge subjects for stem cell clinical research and may not advertise it. Outside haematopoietic transplant, stem cell therapy in China remains at the clinical research stage rather than clinical application.

  • [S53]Reported · 2025

    Reporting on China's underground cosmetic limb-lengthening market and patient harm

    https://www.163.com/dy/article/KHKV69K70514R9OJ.htmlchecked 2026-09-15

    Illegal clinics quoted at CNY 100,000 to 1,000,000, with former patients paid referral commissions up to CNY 80,000. Reported outcomes include unequal leg lengths and an inability to stand.

  • [S54]Reported · 2026

    Reporting on cardiac surgery pricing at Shanghai tertiary international departments

    https://m.sohu.com/a/1023202473_122745617checked 2026-09-15

    Roughly USD 40,000 all-in for a coronary bypass, against a US self-pay range several times that. Media-reported and corroborated across outlets rather than taken from a hospital price list, so a market anchor rather than a quote.

  • [S55]Reported · 2026

    Industry analysis of joint replacement pricing at Chinese Grade 3A international departments

    https://sina.cn/news/detail/5338745995002321.htmlchecked 2026-09-15

    Knee replacement around USD 8,000-12,000 at the international tier. A separate patient account puts a Shanghai hip replacement at a little over CNY 30,000; single accounts are the weakest evidence on this page.

  • [S56]Reported · 2026

    Analysis of net savings for foreign patients once travel and accommodation are counted

    https://www.huxiu.com/article/4829099.htmlchecked 2026-09-15

    Concludes that once return flights, one to four weeks of accommodation, a companion, translation and contingency are added, the saving on routine elective surgery falls to roughly 20-30 percent, and below 20 percent for short-haul patients.

  • [S57]Reported · 2026

    China Daily: foreign patients travelling to China for hospital expertise, including CAR-T

    https://govt.chinadaily.com.cn/s/202602/04/WS6982ffd9498e23165e06d42c/foreigners-check-in-to-china-for-hospital-expertise_4.htmlchecked 2026-09-15

    Reports the first approved solid-tumour CAR-T at CNY 990,000 a dose, approved in China and not yet elsewhere, with a New Zealand patient among the first foreign recipients. State media.

  • [S58]Reported · 2026

    Zhongshan Hospital Shanghai International Department: published registration fees via booking platform

    https://guahaoe.com/expert/f54f2150-fe9b-4cd5-80f7-23da0aec0564000checked 2026-09-15

    CNY 1,200 to register with a chief physician in cardiac surgery, CNY 800 with an associate chief physician, and a CNY 300 surcharge to request a named doctor for a return visit. Listed on the booking platform rather than a hospital price page, but specific to named clinicians.

  • [S59]Reported · 2026

    Zhongshan Hospital International Department inpatient rates, patient account

    https://www.whatson.red/blog/navigating-shanghai-hospital-international-departments-forchecked 2026-09-15

    CNY 6,400 a night self-pay, CNY 3,800 with a commercial insurance discount. Corroborated across sources but originating in a patient account.

  • [S60]Official · 2026

    Shanghai Jiahui International Cancer Center: first international patient treated with an approved solid-tumour CAR-T

    https://jicc.jiahui.com/en_US/news/217checked 2026-09-15

    The centre reports treating CAR-T patients from twelve countries since 2023. Satri-cel is approved in China and not yet elsewhere.

  • [S61]Reported · 2025

    Turkish health tourism revenue and patient volume for 2025, reported from official figures

    https://www.odatv.com/ekonomi/turkiyenin-saglik-turizmi-geliri-3-milyari-asti-120154873checked 2026-09-15

    1.39 million foreign patients and USD 3.02 billion in revenue, against a stated 2026 target of 2.5 million patients and USD 10 billion.

  • [S62]Reported · 2026

    Turkish health tourism, first quarter 2026: Anadolu Agency and Daily Sabah

    https://www.dailysabah.com/business/tourism/turkiyes-q1-health-tourism-revenue-hits-7615m-as-demand-grows/ampchecked 2026-09-15

    302,487 international patients and USD 761.5 million in the quarter, with revenue per patient up around 39 percent year on year, with the shift towards oncology, cardiovascular, robotic surgery and transplant.

  • [S63]Reported · 2026

    Hürriyet Daily News: Turkish health tourism volumes and sector response to negative coverage

    https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/amp/turkiyes-health-tourism-faces-rival-campaigns-amid-global-rise-221256checked 2026-09-15

    Sector figures attribute a 7 percent fall in patient volume between 2024 and 2025 to what they describe as perception campaigns: reporting on unlicensed clinics and complications.

  • [S64]Broker-compiled · 2025

    Bookimed listing for Memorial Antalya Hospital, coronary artery bypass

    https://us-uk.bookimed.com/clinic/memorial-antalya-hospital/procedure=coronary-artery-bypass-grafting/checked 2026-09-15

    The same listing carries two very different figures for the same hospital and procedure, one of them surgery-only and one a package including five days in hospital and fifteen nights of hotel. A clear illustration of why a Turkish headline price cannot be compared without its inclusions.

  • [S65]Broker-compiled · 2026

    Bookimed listing for Hisar Intercontinental Hospital, knee replacement

    https://us-uk.bookimed.com/clinic/hisar-intercontinental-hospital/procedure=knee-replacement/checked 2026-09-15

    Four tiers, two to four nights in hospital, translator and transfers included, no hotel in the basic tier. Bilateral listed at EUR 16,400 with a five-night stay.

  • [S66]Broker-compiled · 2026

    Bookimed listing for Lokman Hekim Akay Hospital, knee replacement

    https://us-uk.bookimed.com/clinic/lokman-hekim-akay/procedure=knee-replacement/checked 2026-09-15

    Around EUR 7,000, including four days in hospital, four days of hotel and an interpreter.

  • [S67]Broker-compiled · 2025

    Bookimed listing for Okan University Hospital, hip replacement

    https://us-uk.bookimed.com/clinic/okan-university-hospital/illness=coxarthrosis/checked 2026-09-15

    Around USD 9,000, including five days in hospital, surgeon fees and follow-up. A separate UK-facing agency lists a Turkish hip from GBP 8,025 with three nights in hospital, seven nights of hotel and physiotherapy.

  • [S68]Official · 2026

    Güven Hospital and Istanbul Florence Nightingale: published accreditation status

    https://www.guveninternational.com/hospitals/guven-hastanesichecked 2026-09-15

    Güven states JCI accreditation six consecutive times alongside Planetree Gold; Florence Nightingale states JCI since 2013 with re-inspection every three years. Turkey has more than forty JCI-accredited hospitals.

  • [S69]Official · 2026

    Korea Ministry of Health and Welfare, 2025 foreign patient statistics: specialty and origin breakdown

    https://www.korea.net/Government/Briefing-Room/Press-Releases/view?articleId=2016788checked 2026-09-15

    2.01 million foreign patients in 2025, up 71.9 percent, from 201 countries. 87.2 percent treated in Seoul. Dermatology accounts for 62.9 percent of patients and cosmetic surgery 11.2 percent. China, Japan, Taiwan and the United States lead by origin.

  • [S70]Reported · 2026

    Korea Herald: medical tourism spending and cumulative foreign patient totals

    https://www.koreaherald.com/article/10724861checked 2026-09-15

    Foreign patients and companions spent an estimated KRW 12.5 trillion in 2025, and cumulative foreign patients since 2009 passed 7 million.

  • [S71]Checked · 2025

    JACC: cost analysis of transcatheter aortic valve replacement across Korean hospitals

    https://learn.acc.org/Public/Catalog/Details.aspx?id=dBp3D9Vdw3rxrmcqKX9tAQ%3d%3dchecked 2026-09-15

    3,463 patients across 39 hospitals. Mean index cost USD 32,173 with a standard deviation of USD 7,552, and 83.2 percent of it material expense: the device rather than the hospital. Peer-reviewed, and the best-sourced single price figure on this site.

  • [S72]Official · 2026

    Severance Hospital, Yonsei: institutional record

    https://www.medicalkorea.or.kr/en/mostvisitedmedicalinstitutions/view?medicalProviderNo=10134checked 2026-09-15

    First JCI-accredited hospital in Korea, first carbon ion therapy centre in the country from 2023, and reports passing 40,000 robotic surgeries.

  • [S73]Reported · 2026

    Published price list, Seoul plastic surgery clinic

    https://abplasticsurgerykorea.com/plastic-surgery-cost-in-koreachecked 2026-09-15

    Clinic-published starting prices: rhinoplasty from USD 4,420, square jaw reduction from USD 5,240, three-set facial contouring from USD 15,650, abdominoplasty from USD 10,200. One clinic's own list rather than a market rate.

  • [S74]Official · 2024

    US Department of Health and Human Services, HIPAA FAQ 3009: liability after a covered entity sends ePHI to an app the individual chose

    https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/for-professionals/faq/3009/does-a-hipaa-covered-entity-bear-liability.htmlchecked 2026-09-23

    Where the app was not provided by or on behalf of the covered entity, the covered entity is not liable under the HIPAA Rules for the app's later use or disclosure, including a breach at the app.

  • [S75]Official · 2024

    US Department of Health and Human Services, Covered Entities and Business Associates

    https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/for-professionals/covered-entities/index.html

    HIPAA applies to health plans, health care clearinghouses, health care providers that transmit health information electronically, and their business associates.

  • [S76]Official · 2016

    Regulation (EU) 2016/679 (General Data Protection Regulation), Article 9 and Chapter V (Articles 44-49)

    https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2016/679/oj/engchecked 2026-09-23

    Health data is a special category under Article 9. Transfers outside the EEA need an adequacy decision (Article 45) or appropriate safeguards (Article 46).

  • [S77]Official · 2026

    European Commission, Data protection adequacy for non-EU countries; and first review of the Republic of Korea adequacy decision

    https://commission.europa.eu/law/law-topic/data-protection/international-dimension-data-protection/adequacy-decisions_enchecked 2026-09-23

    Korea's 2021 adequacy decision was reviewed and confirmed on 23 July 2026.

  • [S78]Checked · 2019

    Rocher, Hendrickx and de Montjoye, 'Estimating the success of re-identifications in incomplete datasets using generative models', Nature Communications 10, 3069

    https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-10933-3checked 2026-09-23

    99.98% of Americans would be correctly re-identified in any dataset using 15 demographic attributes.

  • [S79]Official · 2017

    Information Commissioner's Office, 'Royal Free - Google DeepMind trial failed to comply with data protection law'

    https://ico.org.uk/about-the-ico/media-centre/news-and-blogs/2017/07/royal-free-google-deepmind-trial-failed-to-comply-with-data-protection-law/checked 2026-09-23

    3 July 2017. The Royal Free NHS Foundation Trust provided personal data of around 1.6 million patients to DeepMind for clinical safety testing of the Streams app; patients were not adequately informed.

  • [S80]Official · 2026

    Google Drive Help, 'Get started with encrypted files in Drive, Docs, Sheets & Slides'

    https://support.google.com/drive/answer/10519333checked 2026-09-23

    Files are encrypted in transit and at rest with AES-256, with Google managing the keys by default. Client-side encryption, where the customer holds the keys, is limited to certain Workspace editions and is unavailable to consumer accounts.

  • [S81]Official · 2026

    Google Transparency Report, 'Email encryption in transit'

    https://transparencyreport.google.com/safer-email/overviewchecked 2026-09-23

    Gmail encrypts mail in transit with TLS only when the other provider supports it; TLS does not encrypt email while it is stored on a server.

  • [S82]Official · 2026

    Zkomi Research, Paper 004: The Zero-Knowledge Architecture

    https://zkomi.com/research/zero-knowledge

    Zkomi's description of its zero-knowledge, local-first design: health data encrypted on the device, with no health data sent to a server.

  • [S83]Official · 2026

    Zkomi Research, Paper 016: Memory Without Custody

    https://zkomi.com/research/memory-without-custody

    Zkomi's paper on medical continuity across borders without a central custodian of health data.

  • [S84]Official · 2023

    Personal Information Protection Act of Korea, English translation (Korea Legislation Research Institute)

    https://elaw.klri.re.kr/eng_service/lawView.do?hseq=62389&lang=ENGchecked 2026-09-23

    Article 23: sensitive information, including health, needs separate consent. Article 28-8: five legal bases for transfers abroad.

  • [S85]Official · 2021

    Commission Implementing Decision (EU) 2022/254 on the adequate protection of personal data by the Republic of Korea

    https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/HTML/?uri=CELEX:32022D0254checked 2026-09-23

    EU adequacy decision for Korea, adopted 17 December 2021.

  • [S86]Reported · 2026

    Hunton Andrews Kurth, 'South Korea Amends Privacy Law to Authorize Fines of Up to 10% of Total Revenue'

    https://www.hunton.com/privacy-and-cybersecurity-law-blog/south-korea-amends-privacy-law-to-authorize-fines-of-up-to-10-of-total-revenuechecked 2026-09-23

    PIPA amendments passed 12 February 2026: fines up to 10% of total revenue for repeated, grossly negligent or very large breaches, effective six months after enactment.

  • [S87]Reported · 2026

    DLA Piper, Data Protection Laws of the World: South Korea

    https://www.dlapiperdataprotection.com/index.html?t=law&c=KRchecked 2026-09-23

    Breach notification within 72 hours; general penalty surcharge up to 3% of total revenue.

  • [S88]Official · 2019

    Personal Data Protection Authority (KVKK), Board Decision 2019/10 on personal data breach notification

    https://www.kvkk.gov.tr/Icerik/6647/The-Board-Decision-No-2019-10-of-24-01-2019-about-Procedures-and-Principles-of-Personal-Data-Breach-Notification-checked 2026-09-23

    Reads 'the shortest time' in Article 12(5) as 72 hours for notifying the Board.

  • [S89]Official · 2024

    Personal Data Protection Authority (KVKK), By-Law on the transfer of personal data abroad and standard contracts

    https://www.kvkk.gov.tr/Icerik/7999/Announcement-on-the-Translation-of-By-Law-on-The-Procedures-And-Principles-For-The-Transfer-of-Personal-Data-Abroad-and-Standard-Contract-Textschecked 2026-09-23

    Standard contracts must be notified to the Authority within five business days of signing.

  • [S90]Reported · 2024

    Erdem & Erdem, 'What has changed in the Personal Data Protection Law numbered 6698'

    https://www.erdem-erdem.av.tr/en/insights/what-has-changed-in-the-personal-data-protection-law-numbered-6698checked 2026-09-23

    Law No. 7499, in force 1 June 2024: new grounds for processing special categories, including health data processed by people under a duty of confidentiality; new transfer regime; fines in Article 18.

  • [S91]Reported · 2019

    Personal Data Protection Act B.E. 2562 (2019) of Thailand, English translation (Open Development Mekong)

    https://data.thailand.opendevelopmentmekong.net/en/laws_record/2562/resource/ec616be5-9fbf-4071-b4b5-cb1f3e46e826checked 2026-09-23

    Section 26: health is sensitive data needing explicit consent unless an exception applies. Section 28: transfers abroad. Section 90: administrative fines up to THB 5 million.

  • [S92]Reported · 2025

    DLA Piper Privacy Matters, 'Thailand: PDPC's clarification on personal data breach notification'

    https://privacymatters.dlapiper.com/2025/02/thailand-pdpcs-clarification-on-personal-data-breach-notification/checked 2026-09-23

    Notify the PDPC without undue delay and, where feasible, within 72 hours, unless the breach poses no risk.

  • [S93]Reported · 2023

    Tilleke & Gibbins, 'Thailand unveils regulations for cross-border personal data transfer'

    https://www.tilleke.com/insights/thailand-unveils-regulations-for-cross-border-personal-data-transfer/checked 2026-09-23

    PDPC notifications on adequacy, binding corporate rules and appropriate safeguards for transfers abroad.

  • [S94]Reported · 2021

    Future of Privacy Forum, 'China's new comprehensive data protection law: context, stated objectives, key provisions'

    https://fpf.org/blog/chinas-new-comprehensive-data-protection-law-context-stated-objectives-key-provisions/checked 2026-09-23

    PIPL Articles 28 and 29 (medical health as sensitive, separate consent), 38 and 39 (transfers abroad), 57 (breach notification) and 66 (fines up to RMB 50 million or 5% of turnover).

  • [S95]Reported · 2024

    Cyberspace Administration of China, Provisions on Promoting and Regulating the Cross-Border Flow of Data (China Law Translate)

    https://www.chinalawtranslate.com/en/Provisions-on-Promoting-and-Regulating-the-Cross--Border-Flow-of-Data/checked 2026-09-23

    Issued 22 March 2024; exempts several everyday scenarios from security assessment and standard contracts.

  • [S96]Official · 2014

    National Health Commission of China, Interpretation of the Population Health Information Management Measures (Trial)

    http://en.nhc.gov.cn/2014-06/15/c_46801.htmchecked 2026-09-23

    Population health information may not be stored on servers outside China.

  • [S97]Reported · 2025

    Law on Personal Data Protection No. 91/2025/QH15 of Vietnam, English translation (LuatVietnam)

    https://english.luatvietnam.vn/dan-su/law-on-personal-data-protection-law-no-91-2025-qh15-405135-d1.htmlchecked 2026-09-23

    Passed 26 June 2025, in force 1 January 2026, replacing Decree 13/2023/ND-CP.

  • [S98]Reported · 2025

    Securiti, 'Vietnam Law on Personal Data Protection 2025 (Law No. 91/2025/QH15)'

    https://securiti.ai/solutions/vietnam-law-on-personal-data-protection/checked 2026-09-23

    Consent required for health data; cross-border transfer impact assessment filed with the Ministry of Public Security within 60 days; fines up to 5% of prior-year revenue for transfer violations, ten times revenue for trading data, VND 3 billion otherwise.

  • [S99]Reported · 2026

    DFDL, 'Vietnam personal data protection 2026: what foreign organizations need to know'

    https://www.dfdl.com/insights/legal-and-tax-updates/vietnam-personal-data-protection-2026-what-foreign-organizations-need-to-know/checked 2026-09-23

    Breach notification to the authority (A05) within 72 hours; affected people also within 72 hours where sensitive data is involved.

  • [S100]Official · 2022

    Law No. 27 of 2022 on Personal Data Protection of Indonesia (JDIH, Ministry of Communication and Digital Affairs)

    https://jdih.komdigi.go.id/produk_hukum/view/id/832/t/undangundang+nomor+27+tahun+2022checked 2026-09-23

    Article 4(2): health data and information is specific personal data. Article 46: breach notice within 3 x 24 hours. Article 56: transfers abroad. Article 57: fines up to 2% of annual revenue.

  • [S101]Reported · 2026

    DLA Piper, Data Protection Laws of the World: Indonesia

    https://www.dlapiperdataprotection.com/?t=law&c=IDchecked 2026-09-23

    Summary of UU PDP obligations, sanctions and transfer rules.

  • [S102]Reported · 2026

    Adaptist Consulting, 'Indonesia's Personal Data Protection Law is fully enforceable. Its regulator still doesn't exist'

    https://adaptistconsulting.com/reports/indonesias-pdp-law-is-fully-enforceable-without-regulator/checked 2026-09-23

    Reports that the agency provided for in the law had yet to be formed in 2026.

  • [S103]Reported · 2023

    SIP Law Firm, on patient data security and electronic medical records (Minister of Health Regulation 24 of 2022)

    https://siplawfirm.id/menelisik-keamanan-data-pribadi-pasien-di-era-digital-melalui-rekam-medis-elektronik/?lang=idchecked 2026-09-23

    All health facilities must run electronic medical records by 31 December 2023; health data is specific personal data under Article 4(2) of UU PDP.

  • [S104]Official · 2025

    European Commission, 'Commission renews decisions to allow for the free and safe flow of personal data with the UK'

    https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/ip_25_3059checked 2026-09-23

    Renewed UK adequacy decisions adopted 19 December 2025, valid until 27 December 2031.

  • [S105]Reported · 2026

    DLA Piper, Data Protection Laws of the World: United Kingdom

    https://www.dlapiperdataprotection.com/index.html?t=law&c=GB

    UK GDPR and Data Protection Act 2018: breach notice to the ICO within 72 hours; fines up to GBP 17.5 million or 4% of worldwide turnover.

  • [S106]Official · 2024

    Federal Data Protection and Information Commissioner (FDPIC), 'EU adequacy decision regarding Switzerland'

    https://www.edoeb.admin.ch/en/15012024-eu-adequacy-decision-regarding-switzerlandchecked 2026-09-23

    The European Commission confirmed Switzerland's adequacy on 15 January 2024.

  • [S107]Reported · 2026

    DLA Piper, Data Protection Laws of the World: Switzerland

    https://www.dlapiperdataprotection.com/?t=law&c=CHchecked 2026-09-23

    Revised FADP in force 1 September 2023; health data is sensitive; breach notice to the FDPIC as soon as possible (Article 24); criminal fines up to CHF 250,000 on responsible individuals.

  • [S108]Official · 2024

    Code de la santé publique, Article L1111-8 (Légifrance)

    https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/codes/article_lc/LEGIARTI000049577902checked 2026-09-23

    Anyone hosting personal health data for patients, professionals or health facilities must hold a certificate of conformity (HDS).

  • [S109]Official · 2026

    Agence du Numérique en Santé, 'Certification HDS'

    https://esante.gouv.fr/produits-services/hdschecked 2026-09-23

    How health data hosting (HDS) certification works, through COFRAC-accredited certification bodies.

  • [S110]Official · 2021

    Federal Data Protection Act (BDSG), English translation (Federal Ministry of Justice)

    https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/englisch_bdsg/englisch_bdsg.htmlchecked 2026-09-23

    Section 22: health data may be processed for diagnosis, care and treatment by health professionals bound by professional secrecy.

  • [S111]Reported · 2017

    Noerr, 'Revision of secrecy safeguards in criminal law for lawyers, doctors, hospitals and insurance companies'

    https://www.noerr.com/en/insights/neuregelung-des-strafrechtlichen-geheimnisschutzes-fuer-rechtsanwaelte-aerzte-klinikenchecked 2026-09-23

    Section 203 of the German Criminal Code makes unlawful disclosure of patient secrets by doctors a criminal offence.

  • [S112]Official · 2018

    Ley Orgánica 3/2018 de Protección de Datos Personales y garantía de los derechos digitales (BOE)

    https://www.boe.es/buscar/act.php?id=BOE-A-2018-16673checked 2026-09-23

    Spain's law adapting the GDPR; the AEPD is the supervisory authority.

  • [S113]Official · 2002

    Ley 41/2002 básica reguladora de la autonomía del paciente (BOE)

    https://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-2002-22188checked 2026-09-23

    Article 17: clinical records kept for at least five years from discharge for each episode of care.

  • [S114]Official · 2011

    Act CXII of 2011 on Informational Self-Determination and Freedom of Information, English text (NAIH)

    https://www.naih.hu/files/Privacy_Act-CXII-of-2011_EN_201310.pdfchecked 2026-09-23

    Hungary's data protection act; establishes the NAIH.

  • [S115]Reported · 2025

    Lexology, 'Q&A: Data protection, privacy and digital health in Hungary'

    https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=251f6582-d5b7-487f-b72d-79c3162f1dc7checked 2026-09-23

    Act XLVII of 1997 governs health data; medical records are kept for at least 30 years.

  • [S116]Official · 2019

    Ministry of Health and Prevention (MOHAP), Federal Law No. 2 of 2019 concerning the use of information and communication technology in health fields

    https://uaephl.mohap.gov.ae/en/health-policies-and-legislations-advocacy/health-legislations?itemId=1f1ec80d-5e69-4118-b476-1821bf4236a6checked 2026-09-23

    The UAE health data law, in force 1 November 2020: health data stored and processed inside the UAE, confidentiality, and retention of at least 25 years after the last procedure (Article 20).

  • [S117]Official · 2021

    Ministry of Health and Prevention (MOHAP), Ministerial Decree No. 51 of 2021 on cases in which health data may be stored or transferred outside the country

    https://mohap.gov.ae/en/w/ministerial-decree-no.-51-of-the-year-2021-regarding-cases-in-which-health-data-and-information-may-be-stored-or-transferred-outside-the-countrychecked 2026-09-23

    Lists the exceptions to keeping health data in the UAE, including treatment abroad (with a copy kept in the UAE) and administering insurance claims.

  • [S118]Official · 2026

    UAE Government portal (u.ae), 'Health conditions for UAE residence visa'

    https://u.ae/en/information-and-services/health-and-fitness/health-conditions-for-uae-residence-visachecked 2026-09-23

    Residence visa applicants must be free of communicable diseases such as HIV, tuberculosis, viral hepatitis and syphilis; HIV-positive applicants are refused or not renewed; drug-resistant TB is treated in the UAE before renewal; hepatitis and syphilis screening depends on occupation.

  • [S119]Official · 2025

    Ministry of Human Resources and Emiratisation (MOHRE), 'The Basic Health Insurance Scheme'

    https://mohre.gov.ae/en/guidance-and-awareness-portal-new/the-basic-health-insurance-schemechecked 2026-09-23

    Health insurance compulsory for private-sector employees and domestic workers in every emirate from 1 January 2025, paid by the employer and required to issue or renew residence.

  • [S120]Official · 2026

    Department of Health Abu Dhabi, 'Malaffi'

    https://www.doh.gov.ae/en/featured/malaffichecked 2026-09-23

    Abu Dhabi's health information exchange, connecting the emirate's hospitals; patients can view their own record through the Malaffi Health Portal.

  • [S121]Checked · 2025

    Health information exchange as a strategy for advancing the healthcare ecosystem in the Emirate of Dubai (PMC)

    https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12611100/checked 2026-09-23

    NABIDH, Dubai's health information exchange, connects DHA-licensed facilities.

  • [S122]Reported · 2019

    Global Compliance News (Baker McKenzie), 'UAE: New health data law'

    https://www.globalcompliancenews.com/2019/04/15/new-health-data-law-uae-20190402/checked 2026-09-23

    Federal Law 2 of 2019 lets health data be used or disclosed without consent only for insurers verifying entitlement, anonymised research, public health measures, judicial requests and health-authority requests.

  • [S123]Official · 2026

    UAE Government portal (u.ae), 'Data protection laws'

    https://u.ae/en/about-the-uae/digital-uae/data/data-protection-lawschecked 2026-09-23

    Federal Decree-Law 45 of 2021 on personal data protection; health data governed by its own legislation is outside its scope.

  • [S124]Official · 2025

    Mexico, Ley Federal de Protección de Datos Personales en Posesión de los Particulares (DOF, 20 March 2025)

    https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LFPDPPP.pdfchecked 2026-09-23

    In force 21 March 2025. Health data is sensitive personal data and needs express consent. Transfers in Mexico or abroad may go ahead without consent when needed for medical prevention, diagnosis, health care or treatment. Breaches that significantly affect a person must be reported to them immediately. Fines of 100 to 320,000 UMA, up to double for sensitive data. The data protection functions of INAI pass to the Secretariat of Anti-Corruption and Good Governance.

  • [S125]Reported · 2025

    EY México, 'Entrada en vigor de la nueva Ley Federal de Protección de Datos Personales en Posesión de los Particulares'

    https://www.ey.com/es_mx/technical/tax/boletines-fiscales/nueva-ley-federal-proteccion-datos-personal-posesion-particulareschecked 2026-09-23

    Summary of the 2025 law: express consent for sensitive data, the end of INAI, and oversight by the Secretariat of Anti-Corruption and Good Governance.

  • [S126]Official · 2012

    Mexico, NOM-004-SSA3-2012 on the clinical record (DOF, 15 October 2012)

    https://dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo=5272787&fecha=15/10/2012checked 2026-09-23

    Binding on public, social and private providers, including private practices. The file belongs to the provider and is kept for at least five years after the last medical act. It is confidential: open to the health staff involved, the patient or their representative, and judicial or health authorities. The patient is entitled to a clinical summary (diagnosis, treatment, progress, prognosis and test results).

  • [S127]Official · 2025

    Consulate of Mexico in Washington, 'Temporary resident' visa requirements

    https://consulmex.sre.gob.mx/washington/images/2025/visas/eng/TEMPORARY_RESIDENT__2025.pdfchecked 2026-09-23

    Application form, passport, photo and proof of economic solvency. No medical examination on the list.

  • [S128]Official · 2010

    Mexico, NOM-010-SSA2-2010 on the prevention and control of HIV (DOF, 10 November 2010)

    https://dof.gob.mx/nota_detalle.php?codigo=5166864&fecha=10/11/2010checked 2026-09-23

    An HIV test may not be required for access to goods or services, marriage, employment or education, or for entering or leaving the country, for Mexicans and foreigners alike.

  • [S129]Official · 2026

    Mexico, Ley Federal del Trabajo, article 133

    https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/LFT.pdfchecked 2026-09-23

    Section XIV bars employers from requiring a certificate of non-pregnancy for hiring, keeping or promoting a worker.

  • [S130]Official · 2026

    Mexico, Ley sobre el Contrato de Seguro, articles 8 and 47

    https://www.diputados.gob.mx/LeyesBiblio/pdf/211.pdfchecked 2026-09-23

    The applicant must declare in writing, on the insurer's questionnaire, every fact that matters to the risk. Any omission or inaccurate declaration entitles the insurer to rescind the contract, even if it had no bearing on the claim.

  • [S131]Official · 2026

    CONDUSEF, 'Seguro de gastos médicos mayores'

    https://www.gob.mx/condusef/articulos/seguro-de-gastos-medicos-mayores-177570checked 2026-09-23

    Mexico's financial consumer agency: a pre-existing condition, one that began or was diagnosed before the contract, is generally not covered. Compare pre-existing condition rules, waiting periods and exclusions between policies.

  • [S132]Official · 2026

    IMSS, 'Seguro de Salud para la Familia'

    https://www.imss.gob.mx/derechoH/segurosalud-familiachecked 2026-09-23

    Voluntary IMSS health cover for families without social security. Some pre-existing conditions prevent enrolment, some conditions have waiting periods, and some treatments are excluded.